In September 2020, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Kenya urged the President to dissolve the National Assembly, noting that the percentage of women in the National Assembly is below the constitutional limit of one-third.adviceThe percentage of female parliamentarians in Kenya is 21% in the Senate and 31% in the House of Representatives. The percentage of women parliamentarians in Kenya is 21% in the Senate and 311 TP3T in the House of Representatives, which is approximately slightly above the median in the index of women parliamentarians in the world,91st placeThe ratio of men to women is about half of the total number of men. However, this is still far from the half male/female ratio.

Gender equality is an issue that is ubiquitous in our lives and has been on the social agenda for many years; the Fourth World Conference on Women, held in 1995, included women's empowerment on its agenda.Beijing Declaration (1937)and the Beijing Platform for Action. The Beijing Declaration had important implications for guiding the subsequent promotion of gender equality, including the fact that it incorporated minority women's perspectives on women's empowerment. However, 25 years after the Beijing Declaration, "not a single country has achieved gender equality," said a senior UN Women (UNW) official.sound the alarmThe following is a list of the most common problems with the

In this issue, we will focus on gender inequality, exploring the current situation and the factors that make it difficult to achieve. We will also look at examples of countries where gender equality is being promoted.

25 years after the Beijing Declaration: scenes from the Beijing +25 conference (Photo: UN Women/Flickr [CC BY-NC-ND 2.0])

What is gender equality?

Before we take a closer look at gender equality, let us review what the term "gender" means in the first place. The term "gender" refers to the differences between men and women that have been socially, culturally, and historically formed in relation to the biological sexes of male and female. Related terms include the following.

gender identity: "how one perceives one's gender, which does not necessarily correspond to one's physical sex, or gender identity."

gender bias: "sexual prejudice, attitudes and behaviors constrained by social conventions' views of men and women."

gender roleGender roles, behaving according to the image society has of one's gender.

The term cisgender is sometimes used to refer to people whose biological sex matches their gender identity, and the term transgender is sometimes used to refer to people whose biological sex does not match their gender identity.

Why gender equality?importantIs it? Gender equality refers to a society in which men and women have the same opportunities, rights, and obligations, and can be described as a society in which all people can live with equal human rights. In reality, however, gender-based deprivation and absence of rights, discrimination, inequality of opportunity, and violence are occurring all over the world. Gender inequality has been frequently raised as an issue at international conferences, and the importance of efforts to eradicate gender inequality has been repeatedly stated. In response to this international trend, the 1995Beijing Declaration (1937)The "Convention on the Rights of the Child" includes important perspectives such as "guaranteeing the full implementation of the human rights of women and girls as an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of all human rights and fundamental freedoms" and "strengthening efforts to ensure the equal enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedoms of all women and girls facing diverse obstacles to their empowerment and advancement because of factors such as race, age, language, ethnicity, culture, religion, disability, or because they are indigenous" (see "Guiding Principles for Women and Girls"). and "to strengthen efforts to ensure the equal enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedoms by all women and girls who face diverse obstacles to their empowerment and advancement because of factors such as race, age, language, ethnicity, culture, religion, or disability, or because of their indigenous status. However, despite being made an issue in many subsequent international conferences, the situation remains that "gender equality has not been realized by a single country," as stated at the beginning of the document. What are the actual gender-based inequalities of opportunity, violence, and disenfranchisement?

The State of Gender Inequality

Let us look at the current state of gender inequality from several perspectives. In politics, for example, women are currently significantly underrepresented in state institution-making and decision-making in many countries around the world. The percentage of men in politics worldwide is75%and is well over a majority. 193 countries were covered in the 2019dataIn the following table, only three countries (Rwanda, Cuba, and Bolivia) have a majority of parliamentary seats held by women, and only 15 countries have more than 40% seats held by women (*1).

UN Women.dataBased on (2019)

What problems would arise if there are no women in policy making or state decision making, or if there are not enough female legislators? For example, due to differences in their physical experiences, men and women may perceive social issues differently in various situations, such as pregnancy, childbirth, and the experience of fear of being sexually victimized. The extremely small number of female legislators makes it difficult for these issues to be raised on the agenda, making it harder to create systems and laws to correct gender inequalities. As a result, these issues will remain in society. In addition, politicians in a representative democratic system have the role of representing citizens. If the gender balance of politicians, who represent citizens with diverse ideas, ideologies, and problem consciousness, is unbalanced, it will be difficult for the voices of diverse citizens to be reflected in policies, and this may lead to problems that threaten democratic legitimacy. In addition, increasing the number of female legislators has been shown to have a variety of positive outcomes besides solving social problems surrounding women. For example, a study conducted in Canadaresearchrevealed a trend that the increase in the number of female legislators promoted health and welfare and reduced the overall mortality rate in society.

As an area where gender equality lags behind, the problem of the economic sector cannot be overlooked. For example, positions in the management of companies around the world73%.are men, and gender discrimination exists within companies and in situations such as employment. It is not uncommon for the male-dominated management of a company to leave conditions of employment that are disadvantageous to women in the organization. In addition, gendersalary differential, ,employment gapalso has become a problem.

Daily life and the family are also not unrelated to gender inequality. For example, when comparing the amount of time spent on domestic work and unpaid care work between men and women, women on average spend less time than men onthree timesThe majority of the respondents spend a total of about 1.5 million hours in domestic work. This is due to the fact that domestic work and free care work, which have historically been performed by women based on gender roles, are still required of women today. Furthermore, the longer hours of domestic labor can easily create a vicious cycle that prevents women from working in companies and other businesses even if they wanted to. In addition, the world's femaleone in three (possibilities, alternatives, etc.)have also been found to have experienced violence in their lives, including sexual violence by partners and family members.

Chile: women demonstrate for the repeal of the abortion ban (Photo: Fran[zi]s[ko]Vicencio/Flickr [CC BY-NC 2.0])

In addition to this, there are also other gender-basedDifference in enrollment ratesand women on sexuality and reproduction.right of self-determinationof women's marriages and dress, whether they can have arestrictionand the law that makessocial conventionOther problems also exist, such as

Not all people of the same gender have the same experiences. The combination of various axes of discrimination and oppression, called compound and intersectional discrimination, creates a more complex and specific structure of discrimination and oppression. Looking at gender inequality as a case study, even women experience it differently depending on skin color, religion, disability, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic class. For example, in the American emancipation and women's liberation movements, the existence of "black women" was marginalized and their experiencesneglectIt has been made or erased. Compound discrimination still occurs in a variety of settings, and understanding the complex structures of oppression that intersect in the context of gender inequality is also an essential perspective for gender equality.

The problems we have seen so far are human rights issues that cause heavy burdens on women's self-realization and ability to be themselves when living in society. In addition, gender inequality causes poverty and hunger.promotionwomen are more likely than men to be affected by conflicts and toaffectThe problem is also closely related to life-threatening issues, such as greater susceptibility to

G20 summit reportedly a gathering of "world leaders": even among "world leaders" a gender imbalance is noticeable (Photo: OECD/Flickr [CC BY-NC 2.0])

Factors hindering the realization of gender equality

As mentioned above, gender inequality is not being realized even today, but problems are piling up. What problems lie behind the fact that gender equality has not been realized to this extent?

To begin with, how did the social structure of male dominance and female inferiority come about? Since the days of ancient hunter-gatherers, labor was divided according to gender. The form of division of labor varied from region to region and community to community, but in most cases, men were involved in hunting, warfare, and politics.roleIt is known that women were often in charge of This is connected to the fact that men have held political power from a very early stage of human history and that women have been placed in an inferior position in subsequent societies. It is also clear that in all societies studied, women's sexual behavior has been dominated by men and by older women.controlWe also know that women's labor has been valued on the basis of gender. For a long time, the division of labor between men and women has placed women in an inferior position in society, but with the advent of capitalism, the valuing of labor on the basis of gender has changed. In a capitalist economy, labor is recognized by the profits it generates, and thus the gender of the person who performed the labor is of a certain degree of importance.diluted... This diminishes the importance of gender-based division of labor, and men and women as workers.Same groundThe first two years of the 20th century saw the emergence of a movement for the elimination of gender inequality and the slogan "equal pay for equal work. This led to a movement to eliminate inequality between genders and the emergence of the slogan "equal pay for equal work.

On the other hand, the social value of labor that does not produce monetary profit is not duly appreciated because only the profit produced by labor is considered important in a capitalist economy. This is why the social value of domestic work and free care work, which in many cases women are still engaged in today due to the historical gender role-based division of labor, is not fullyrecognitionIt can be assumed that this has led to the lack of women's employment and the socioeconomic oppression of women. In addition, during World War I and World War II, there was a shortage of male workers in many countries, and women's employment rates and wages wererisingThe war was a time of great change for women in Japan. However, in many cases, with the end of the war, women were laid off or their wages were reduced, and the postwar employment situation for women reached prewar levels.fallThe first time I saw him, he was a very good friend of mine.

Women involved in training bomb production. Australia (1943) (Photo: State Library of South Australia/Wikimedia [CC BY 2.0])

One reason why gender equality is still not achieved today is because of gender-based prejudices and stereotypes.question (e.g. on a test)In a society infested with gender bias and stereotypes, it is difficult to create female politicians and business executives. In a society infested with gender bias and stereotypes, it is difficult to create female politicians and business executives, and the vicious cycle caused by this makes it difficult to take measures for gender equality. In addition, men, who are often currently in an advantageous position in various situations, have come to see the realization of gender equality as a threat to their privileges and rights.caseThere are also Religion also influences gender inequality in a variety of settings. In many cases, religions are a factor in their beliefs, religious imagery, language used, and customs.male supremacyIt is the world's major religions (Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism).researchreveals that societies with strong religious influences are more likely to manifest gender inequality than those without.

Further reinforce or perpetuate gender inequalitysocial conventionand others are also factors that contribute to remaining gender inequality.

Countries where gender equality is promoted

Globally, gender equality is far from being realized. However, looking at the situation in individual countries, institutions and policies to realize gender equality have been created in some countries, and social reforms are taking place. The case of Kenya, mentioned at the beginning of this report, can be said to be one such movement to realize gender equality. An index of gender equality efforts in countries around the world is the World Economic Forum's "Global Gender Gap ReportThe "Gender Gap Report. This data has been updated annually since 2006, quantifying and ranking the world's gender gap in the four areas of politics, economics, education, and health. The countries ranked in the top 10 in the 2020 Global Gender Gap Report are as shown in the figure below.

Here, we would like to give examples from Iceland, Nicaragua, and Rwanda, which differ in region, history, and development status from these 10 countries.

Iceland

Iceland has ranked first in the Gender Equality Index 11 times. The Global Gender Gap Report indicates 1 for full gender equality and 0 for full inequality. Iceland has a total score of0.877The company obtained a What is behind this high gender equality index? Historically, women have played various roles in society while men were at sea for long periods of time, for example, fishing, etc. In Icelandic mythology, there are male and female deities, and the importance of the existence of both sexes has been recognized.statusThe first time, the woman was a goddess. However, with the introduction of Christianity, it became undesirable for women to symbolize "God," and as a result, for a long time afterwards, women'ssocial statuswere placed in an inferior position.

In response to this situation, a movement led by the Icelandic Women's Association led to women gaining partial suffrage in 1915, and in 1917 they were granted the same suffrage as men. In 1976, equality between men and women was legally guaranteed. In 1980, the country became the first modern nation in the world to have a female president.progressThe company has been promoting the The introduction of a quota system (*2) for companies, among other things, has also led to the current introduction of a quota system for corporate officers.44% or higherThe company has achieved results, with women accounting for more than half of the total number of employees.

Despite being the closest country in the world to gender equality, challenges remain: according to 2018 data, women are victims of sexual crimes at a rate as high as 1 in 4 in Iceland, of which only12%Only a few have been able to prosecute the damage. ThebackgroundThe "Mere Old Man" believes that there are situations in which the victims of sexual assault are insulted and blamed, and that there is a distrust of the judicial system.

Demonstration in Iceland calling for the abolition of gender violence (Photo: Tom Burke/Flickr [CC BY-NC 2.0])

Nicaragua

Nicaragua is among the top 10 countries in the Americas region in the Global Gender Gap Report, ahead of high-income countries such as Canada and the United States. Long considered one of the poorest countries in the world, the country's economy is not as strong as those in Northern Europe, which also make the top 10. In this context, Nicaragua's realization of gender equality can be attributed to a variety of government-led policies. For example, budget plans and policies that incorporate a gender equality perspective through the "Budget Planning Program for Women's Participation and Gender Equality" have beenimplementationThe government has also recognized that gender equality is an important component of democracy. In addition, governments have recognized that gender equality is an important component of democracy, and that gender equality perspectives at all levels of society, such as policy making, redistribution of public resources, top positions in organizations, and even the jobs held by women, areawarenessThe company has been

In addition, there is the Child-Friendly and Healthy Schools Initiative, which will thoroughly eliminate gender inequality in schools under this initiativeinitiativeis being taken. By implementing equal treatment of men and women in all tasks required in school life, Nicaraguan children learn early on that men and women are equal inLearning.The following is a list of the most common problems with the

Although Nicaragua has a higher percentage of women than men in secondary and higher education, the percentage of men and women entering higher education is low compared to global figures, and university entrance itself is difficult for Nicaraguan students.caseThere are also One possible reason for this is the impact of disparities between the domestic and international markets. In addition, in Nicaragua, theabortionis prohibited, but the Global Gender Gap Report does not include abortion laws and institutional development in the index, so the index alone does not provide an accurate picture of the current state of gender equality in Nicaragua.opinionThere are also

Early childhood education in Nicaragua (Photo: Global Partnership for Education/Flickr [CC BY-NC-ND 2.0])

Rwanda

Rwanda is ranked 9th in the World Economic Forum's Global Gender Gap Report. One of the characteristics of Rwanda is its promotion of gender equality, especially in the political arena, as it ranks 4th when looking at the Gender Equality in Politics Index. Rwanda is the only country in Sub-Saharan Africa to make the ranking, and its promotion of gender equality is deeply rooted in the history of the genocide that took place in 1994. Before the genocide, women in Rwanda, as in many other countries, were responsible for domestic work and childcare, and did not have high economic power or high social status.rareThe first time the company was in

In Rwanda, where the percentage of women in the population is 60%-70% as a result of the 1994 genocide that killed an estimated 800,000 people in a period of about 100 days, women have to take on jobs that were previously held by men.situationwas born. The government, having determined that women's power was essential to the country's recovery, not only focused on women's education, but also introduced a quota system in the parliament and gave bureaucraticPromotion of WomenThe government has promoted the The percentage of women in parliament has exceeded 60%, the highest in the world, and this has contributed to women's rights and the improvement of their status in the country as a whole.serviceThe Rwandan Airlines, for example, and the Bank of Kigali, a major bank, have female CEOs. For example, the state-owned Rwandan Airways and the Bank of Kigali, a major bank, have women as CEOs.inaugurationThe company is doing so.

On the other hand, there are also persistent issues of gender inequality and social norms based on gender inequality, such as the heavy burden of domestic work on women and the fact that one in five women (often by their husbands) suffers from sexual violence.remainRwanda. Rwanda's bipartisan women's caucus has been a major force in the enactment of anti-violence legislation, from its drafting to passage.roleThe company has been playing an active role in this area, and future moves toward resolving the issue will be closely watched.

A view of Rwanda's parliament (Photo: Paul Kagame/Flickr [CC BY-NC-ND 2.0])

So far we have looked at the issue of gender inequality primarily from the perspective of men and women. However, gender equality is by no means as simple as this dichotomy alone. Gender equality, which includes the various "sexes" of diverse people who cannot be lumped together under the two categories of male and female, is indispensable for realizing a world in which all people can live in peace, security, and safety. We must look at the current problems and take concrete and effective policies and actions now to realize gender equality.

1 All figures are based on those in the Chamber of Deputies in the case of bicameral legislatures, in descending order of percentage of female members in the 15 countries: Rwanda 61.31 TP3T, Cuba 53.2, Bolivia 53.11 TP3T, Mexico 48.21 TP3T, Sweden 47.31 TP3T, Grenada 46.71 TP3 T, Namibia 46.2%, Costa Rica 45.6%, Nicaragua 44.6%, South Africa 42.7%, Senegal 41.5%, Finland 41.5%, Spain 41.1%, Norway 40.8%, New Zealand 40 .0%

note 2 (supplementary information)quota systemis "a system in which certain ratios are determined and quotas are set so that there is no gender, racial, or other bias in the composition of the workforce when hiring or electing members of Congress.

Writer: Azusa Iwane

Graphics: Yow Shuning, Minami Ono

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