The Truth Commission in Sweden on June 12, 2020.establishmentThe Truth Commission was announced in December 2011. Truth commissions are established on a national basis to investigate historical injustices suffered by groups of victims of human rights abuses and political oppression, and to seek reconciliation in the future. The Truth Commission to be established in Sweden is intended to reveal the history and reality of the discrimination that the indigenous Sámi people, who have traditionally lived in the Arctic Circle, have suffered from their government over the years. This is the third country to establish a truth commission on the Sámi people, following Norway in 2017 and Finland in 2019. What discrimination have the Sámi suffered to date, and what new environmental and development issues do they now face?

Norway's Sami Parliament (Photo: Illustratedjc/Wilimedia Commons [CC BY-SA 3.0])

What is Sami?

The Sami are the largest indigenous people in Europe, who have lived in an area that stretches from the northern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula to the Kola Peninsula in Russia. They are believed to have inhabited the region at least as early as 11,000 B.C., and theirpopulationis estimated at 80,000, including 50,000 in Norway, 20,000 in Sweden, 8,000 in Finland, and 2,000 in Russia. However, statistics on this population areidentityThe exact population is unknown, as it is based on a survey of the population of the country, and no accurate survey has been conducted in each country. Religion has traditionally been polytheistic, with an emphasis on ties to the earth. The main language of the community has long been Sámi. Although the Sámi language is said to have no clear linguistic boundaries between adjacent dialectal regions, at least 10 dialects have disappeared so far, partly due to a decrease in the number of speakers. As of 2001, the number of Sámi speakers among young people wasspeakeris estimated to be 25,000 to 30,000 people.

Living in the far north, the Sami developed a lifestyle adapted to the harsh and cold tundra climate, and although they were related through trade, they remained independent without being incorporated into surrounding nations. Over the centuries, they have maintained a variety of lifestyles, including hunting and gathering, fishing, and reindeer nomadism. The Sámi and reindeer nomadism in particular are culturally significant to the extent that they are inseparable. The Sami nomadic reindeer herders form villages of five to six families and lead a nomadic lifestyle as the reindeer herds migrate seasonally in search of food. They made a living by eating reindeer meat and selling the skins as clothing, using the reindeer as a resource. Today, however, only a few Sami live solely on nomadic reindeer herding.someMost of the Sámi have left their lands and traditional livelihoods prior to the invasion by the states and are living in urban areas or earning their livelihoods outside of nomadism and fishing. Even those who live in traditional Sámi settlements often make their living in the service industry.

The Sámi Parliament is a body that deals with Sámi issues, discusses them with other countries, and works to build consensus among the Sámi and to protect their culture and language. Sweden, Norway, and Finland each have their own Sámi parliaments in addition to the general parliaments. In particular, the three countries are working to establish the status of the Sámi as an ethnic minority, as well as to establish a treaty that will give the Sámi a wider range of autonomy. The Sami have their own culture, language, and parliament. However, history has shown that discrimination and forced cultural assimilation over the years have put their existence and their communities in a vulnerable position. Even today, Sami rights are neglected in many situations.

History of Discrimination

As mentioned above, the Sami originally lived in the Arctic Circle, maintaining independence from the states of present-day Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia. However, after the 15th century, Sweden and Norway began to pay attention to the lands inhabited by the Sami in terms of resource use, and sent expeditions of dispatchers to the area. Each country imposed a one-sided system, forcing the Sami to pay taxes to settle in their lands, and the expedition members overhunted reindeer. Deprived of their traditional way of life, some of the Sami were forced to give up nomadic herding, fishing, and other means of earning a living. This event was the beginning of a series of increasingly severe demands for cultural assimilation on the Sámi.

In 17th century Sweden, Christianization was enforced against the Sami. to Christianity.religious conversionThe Sami were forced to attend services at the association, with punishments of fines, imprisonment, and even death for those who did not comply. This almost completely destroyed the traditional Sami religion, and even in 19th century Norway, the government seized the land where the Sami had lived and worked, prohibited the use of the Sami language and customs, and forced conversions to Christianity. Prior to that time, education was conducted in the Sami language, and religious texts were written in Sami. Due to the Norwegian government's assimilation policy, children were educated in Norwegian and forced to change their names to Christian names, and their own culture and language were severely suppressed. As a result, many Sami dialects became extinct. In addition, in Norway in the first half of the 20th century, a law was enacted that required Sami lands to be transferred to the government, and the Sami and their culture wereextinguishmentThe company has been even more proactive in its efforts to make its customers feel that they have a right to a better quality of life.

Traditional Sami family (Photo: tonynetone/Flickr [CC BY 2.0])

After World War II, the International Labor Organization (ILO) established the 1957 Indigenous Peoples Convention (No. 107.(*1). This was the first international instrument adopted to free indigenous peoples from oppression and discrimination. However, the treaty was premised on the integration of indigenous peoples into the dominant society, which implied that the loss of their culture was inevitable. In response, there were objections from some indigenous peoples who believed that forced assimilation should be prevented from a human rights perspective as well. And so, in 1989, Convention No. 107 became the Indigenous Peoples Convention (No. 169.)(*2), as amended. This treaty is an international instrument aimed at restoring the rights of indigenous peoples around the world. It recognizes the right of indigenous peoples to self-determination within nations and establishes standards for national governments regarding all rights of indigenous peoples, including the right to land. However, countries that had ratified the treaty before the revision did not necessarily ratify the revised treaty. that granting the Sami the right to self-determination would weaken the control of the state.reasonFrom the "Mere Old Man," only Norway ratified the revised treaty, while Sweden, Finland, and Russia did not.

The migration, which had been difficult to travel to and from Russia during the Cold War, resumed with the end of the Cold War in 1989, as well as the worldwide movement to restore the rights of indigenous peoples in the 1980s and 1990s,Late 1990sIn 1975, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia passed laws recognizing the Sámi as indigenous peoples. However, in Sweden and Norway, although the constitutions guaranteed the protection of culture and language and recognized the Sámi parliament, the laws were not actually enforced and tacit discrimination continued. In Finland, the Sámi are recognized as an ethnic group, but their land rights remain denied because they have not ratified ILO Convention No. 169, and in Russia, although the constitution includes provisions for the economic development of indigenous peoples, the government has not implemented them. Since 2000, Sweden has officially recognized the Sámi language as a minority language, and in 2011 the Sámi were declared a national language.approvalThe Sami law on land and rights is alsoenactmentThe discrimination has not been addressed and remains to this day.

Sami Council members presenting at the Arctic Council (Photo: arctic_council/Flickr [CC BY-ND 2.0])

Environmental problems that threaten our lives

In addition to the above discrimination, in recent years, issues such as environmental problems and climate change have also had a significant impact on the lives of the Sami.

One of these is radioactivity: in 1986, an explosion occurred at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine. After the accident, radioactive clouds spread over a large area of Europe, including Norway, and radioactive materials fell to the ground with rainfall and snowfall. These radioactive materials were easily absorbed by lichens and mushrooms, which are winter food for reindeer. Therefore, after the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident, reindeer ingestion of lichen containing radioactive materials led to the accumulation of radioactive materials in their bodies, and now, 30 years after the accident, reindeer in Norway have been found to have much higher levels ofradioactive materialwas detected in the study. Reindeer meat is widely consumed in Scandinavian countries and was an important source of income for the Sami, who made their living as nomadic reindeer herders. However, the Sami who raise reindeer as livestock were unable to sell reindeer meat after radioactive substances were detected, and their livelihoods were severely affected.

Furthermore, climate change, which is a major global issue, is also causing significant damage to reindeer. In particular, the Arctic region is experiencing more warming than any other place on earth.twice as fastIt is known that In Sweden, for example, the average temperature has increased by 1.64 degrees Celsius over the entire country compared to the pre-industrial era. In alpine regions, this trend of rising temperatures is even more pronounced, with average winter temperatures from 1991 to 2017 compared to the average temperatures from 1961 to 1990.three timesThe global warming has been reported to have exceeded the average for the last two decades. One of the problems caused by global warming is the lack of food for reindeer. The rise in temperatures has caused some of the snowfall to turn to rain, and the subsequent drop in temperatures has caused a thick layer of snow to form on the ground, which is then used by the reindeer.ice sheetThe reindeer generally migrate in search of food in season, but their food is trapped under this thick layer of ice. Generally, reindeer migrate in search of food in accordance with the seasons, but their food is trapped under this thick layer of ice. In the Arctic, the first snow falls in the fall, making the winter season longer, and at the same time, the reindeer are unable to obtain food for a longer period of time. The reindeer eat up all the grass in the pastures where they stay during the summer, and even if they move to a new place to stay during the winter, they will not be able to find food there for a long time, increasing the possibility that they will suffer from food shortages and die of starvation. In addition, the first snow falls earlier in the Arctic Circle, making the winter season longer, and reindeer are without food for longer periods of time. As a result, reindeer suffer severe food shortages in winter, increasing the risk of starvation and other dangers.

Herd of reindeer (Photo: Mats Andersson/Wikimedia Commons [CC BY 2.0])

In addition, the melting of glaciers due to climate change, which has made it possible for various industries and maritime transport to operate in the Arctic, also threatens the livelihood of the Sami. Here are some examplesArctic Ocean Railway Construction ProjectThe following is a brief overview of the Arctic Ocean. In recent years, global warming has caused sea ice to melt, and shipping routes in the Arctic Ocean are expanding. With this, Finnish entrepreneurs have attempted to develop the economy of northern Finland, proposing to build a railroad from Norway to Finland in 2019 to transport mining products, oil, and gas. However, the construction of the railroad could cause all kinds of damage to the nomadic reindeer herders, including taking away pasture from the Sami, causing trains to cross reindeer herding routes, and colliding with reindeer when the trains are running. In addition, the opening of the railroad will lead to the development of infrastructure and the establishment of new industries near the railroad tracks, which will deprive the Sami of their land rights and interests.

In Finland, deforestation is also a major activity. The forests in Finland are the largest in the world.1%.As of 2018, the world's paper production volume was less than9th placeFinland's forestry and paper industry is so active that it is included in the "Top 10" list of the world's most productive forests. Deforestation is taking place on large areas of state-owned land where reindeer herds graze, leading to large-scale deforestation as well as the deterioration of plant growth cycles and the destruction of diverse ecosystems. As mentioned above, Finland has not ratified ILO Convention 169, and companies were conducting forestry operations without considering the impact on the environment or the Saami. In response to demonstrations and lawsuits in various parts of Europe, the Finnish government finally agreed to protect the forests in 2010, promising that the forests will be secured until 2030 at the earliest. As can be seen from these facts, Sámi livelihoods have been greatly affected by climate change, environmental destruction, and the promotion of resource development in many countries.

Green Colonization."

As climate change worsens, one key to efforts to combat it is said to be the production of renewable energy and electric vehicles. However, the promotion of renewable energy and automobile production may also have negative impacts on the traditional livelihoods of the Sami.

Dam built on the Alta River (Photo: Statkraft/Flickr [CC BY-NC-ND 2.0])

Around 1980, hydroelectric power generation was focused on as a renewable energy source, and the Alta River in northern Norway wasConstructed a damThe Sami had been the first to propose the construction of a dam on the Alta River. However, the Alta River runs through reindeer pastureland, and the construction of a dam would not only put the Sami villages in danger of being submerged, but would also cut off the reindeer's grazing route. In response, Sami activists and Norwegian environmentalists staged a demonstration to prevent the dam and the construction of a road necessary for the dam. Police were mobilized and arrests were made, but resistance by the demonstrators continued. In the end, however, they were unable to stop the dam construction on the grounds that the Sami were not granted ownership of the grazing land. It is said that the demonstration and its repercussions led to the later passage of a constitutional amendment guaranteeing the protection of the Sami language and culture, as well as a law allowing political representation. Furthermore, this event led to widespread publicity about the threat to Sami livelihoods in the context of the promotion of renewable energy.wind power generationJust as the construction of a dam in 1980 caused problems of submerging villages and cutting off pastureland, the building of wind power facilities in the mountains will deprive the Sami of new land, and they will increasingly be forced to reduce their living space. forced to shrink their living areas.

As the global demand for renewable energy increases, so does the demand for the mineral resources needed to produce and store that energy, and mine development is underway.electric automobileTypical examples are copper and cobalt used in batteries and wind turbines inExampleIt is. Batteries used in smartphones require around 10 g of cobalt, whereas batteries used in electric vehiclesMax. 3kgand much more cobalt is required. Increasing the production of batteries for electric vehicles requires vast amounts of copper and cobalt, and new sites for mining development are being sought or are being developed. Mining development also affects the lives of the Sami, as the areas rich in mineral resources in each country overlap with the Sami's sphere of life. Russia has the Nikeli and Zapolianny mines, and Finland has the Kevista mine. And the Norwegian government has approved a plan to develop a copper mine in Finnmark to maintain its reputation as one of the world's leading environmental countries, despite opposition from the Sámi parliament. While some have called this a promotion of a green economy, others have denounced it as one of the most environmentally damaging projects in history. In addition, the dumping of mine waste is said to be destroying the ecosystem.question (e.g. on a test)There are also

At first glance, this move to produce energy, machinery, and accompanying equipment that are considered to have a low environmental impact is to be applauded. On the other side of the coin, however, the Sami's habitat and livelihood and the nature and ecosystems that exist there are being gradually taken away and destroyed. While greening is promoted for the sake of the environmental problems created by the socially powerful and the profits they seek as a solution, the wrinkles in the realization of these problems are manifested in the form of the violation of the rights and interests of the socially vulnerable. Because of the similarity of this structure to colonialism, the term "green colonizationIt is referred to as "the Sami community". In order to protect the livelihood and culture of the Sami, the parties involved in a development project are obliged to consult with each other in good faith and well in advance, and to consider how the project can minimize negative impacts before obtaining consent to proceed with the project. However, Susan Norman, a researcher working on this issue, points out (*3) that because companies place the highest priority on generating profits, projects are often undertaken without sufficient understanding or time for the companies or consultants involved in the project. (*3) This "information asymmetry" between the Sami's knowledge of the reindeer's delicate ecosystem and the companies' hasty business planning results in development projects that do not take into account the Sami's concerns, thereby threatening their livelihoods. However, the problem is not solely on the corporate side. The government is ultimately responsible for protecting the Sami's livelihood. Despite its important role in regulating and permitting various projects from the planning stage, and establishing regulations regarding compensation for damages after implementation, the government is not fulfilling its role to the fullest extent. Behind the problem, she says, are the complex interests of various parties.

We have looked at the history of discrimination that the Sami have suffered and the problems they currently face. Over time, changes have occurred in the treatment of them, but discrimination still remains, and their livelihoods are threatened both by climate change and by measures to combat climate change. Climate change mitigation measures are necessary, but the protection of Sami rights is also required. How to strike a balance between the two is a tough challenge. We will pay close attention to the future prospects.

1 ILO notation isConvention on the Status of Indigenous and Tribal Peoplesbut since this is an inappropriate term, we will refer to it as the Indigenous Peoples Treaty.

2 ILO notation isAboriginal and Tribal Peoples Treatybut since this is an inappropriate term, we will refer to it as the Indigenous Peoples Treaty.

3 Interview with the author in October 2020

Writer: Mayuko Hanafusa

Graphic: Mayuko Hanafusa, Yow Shuning

Interview Assistance:Susanne Normann(University of Oslo)

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