Lines of tanks rolling up sand and advancing on gravel roads, explosions in urban areas, children with withered tears. These are probably images we have seen at least once in news reports of armed conflicts. These images seem to convey to us the situation on the ground, moment by moment, in vivid detail. However, to what extent do these images convey the reality of the conflict? We may think we understand the "urgency," "intensity," and "tragedy" of a conflict when we are presented with such images. However, it is difficult to understand the whole picture of the conflict, including the background of the conflict and efforts toward peace. Therefore, in this issue, we will consider the movement toward better conflict reporting while capturing the reality of conflict reporting.

Iraqi soldiers traveling in tanks (Photo: United States Forces Iraq / Flickr[)CC BY-NC-ND 2.0])

War Journalism and Peace Journalism

First of all, what kind of reporting is "war reporting" or "conflict reporting"? One of the most easily imaginable types of coverage is that which focuses on scenes in which force is being used or in which the powers that be are making statements. Those who do this kind of reporting are called "war journalists" or "battlefield photographers.call The "peace" aspect of the project is not a major focus of the media. Conversely, however, we do not see many news reports that focus on the peaceful aspects of the situation. For example, we do not hear terms such as "peace reporting" or "peace journalists. These suggest that, in general, when reporting on conflicts, the focus is on force-related events rather than peace.

This tendency may be characteristic of conflict reporting. Let us compare this with the coverage of infectious diseases as a serious issue facing the world today. Here,2020This article discusses the news reports related to the new coronavirus that we have been seeing every day since around 2006. Of course, there are negative reports on the daily number of infected people, mortality rates, and the shortage of medical care, but at the same time, there are also negative reports on the number of people infected with the new coronavirus, the number of deaths, and the shortage of medical care.remedyand ... andvaccine, ,infectionand ... andaggravation of a serious illnessMany news reports focus on how to deal with or solve this infectious disease, such as how to prevent it. These reports are consistently aimed at people's "health," and you rarely see reports that focus exclusively on "ill health.

Thus, it appears that the way health-threatening diseases are treated in the press is very different from the way peace-threatening conflicts are treated. Researchers who take issue with the current trend in conflict reporting have labeled reporting on conflict as war journalism (war journalismwar reporting) and peace journalism (peace journalism(Peace Reporting)Two ways of reportingI would argue that we can divide them into the following two categories. Let's look at each of these reporting methods in turn.

First, we will organize war journalism, which can be described as a conventional way of reporting on conflicts, by listing its characteristics. What are the characteristics of war journalism?live sporting eventIt would be easier to understand if we imagine a In a sports situation, it is clear that the2The focus is on telling the story of the offense and defense of the players, who are divided into teams. While reporting the facts that are happening at that moment during the game, the focus is on who will win throughout. The basic structure of conflict reporting, which is considered war journalism, is the same. Here, too, it is important to clearly identify the parties (teams) to the conflict.2The conflict is divided into two categories, and the emphasis is placed on the two sides of the conflict. Even though in reality there may be other countries, organizations, and parties involved that do not fit into this simple structure that may have an impact on that conflict,binary oppositionThe news reports focus on the "good" and the "bad". In addition, in some cases, a specific party to the conflict is reported as the "evil" party. Especially when one's own country is involved, the "other party" is positioned as "evil" from the beginning of the report.trendare prominent. Some of them are the media's unreasonable words, deeds, and lies of their own country,concealmentIn some cases, only the other party's problematic words and actions are discussed, turning a blind eye to the

In addition, there are "voices" that are reflected in war journalism and those that are not. In other words, the "voice" of the elite, such as the leaders, ministers, and military officers of the parties involved in the war, as a source of information and parties to be taken up in the reporting, is moreMuch has been reported.This is what I mean. Conversely, the "voices" of civilians and peace-seeking people and organizations are not often reported. And even when the public is mentioned, it is often in quantifiable terms, such as casualties and displaced persons. On the other hand, the less visible realities, such as the psychological trauma and the impact on the social structure, such as the increase in the number of poor people, are less likely to be reported.

Conference on Women, Peace and Security (Photo: UN Women / Flickr[)CC BY-NC-ND 2.0])

Peace journalism was born out of criticism of the current state of conflict reporting. This is1991During the Gulf War of 1979, the traditional reporting of the conflict hindered understanding of the conflict andpromotionHe has been involved in peace studies research for many years.Mr. Johan Galtung due toadvocacywas done. Peace journalism attempts to report on conflicts in a manner similar to the health reporting described above. Thefeature The "media" is to focus on the background and causes of the conflict, to shed light on the voices and perspectives of all parties involved, and to report on peaceful possibilities and movements. It also aims to expose in broad daylight any unreasonable behavior, lies, or cover-ups by the "home country" for the media organization reporting the story. Peace journalism has the potential to contribute to the resolution of conflicts by providing comprehensive and objective information and perspectives on various aspects of the conflict, and by providing information and perspectives that are geared toward peace.

So far, we've looked at conflict reporting as war journalism and peace journalism.2We have stated that it can be viewed from two perspectives. However, actual conflict reporting often includes elements of both. Therefore, in order to understand the reality of conflict reporting more objectively, it is necessary to look in detail at which elements, war journalism or peace journalism, are more emphasized and reported more.

 Trends in Conflict Reporting from NHK Newswatch 9

War journalism and peace journalism were studied by various research institutions for media in many countries.surveyis being done. The concept is also used in practice, and many countries also provide training for journalists andcourse (e.g. of lectures)have also been conducted. However, few surveys have been conducted on the Japanese media. So, what kind of reporting does the Japanese media do when they report on conflicts? Is it more akin to war journalism, or is there a tendency toward peace journalism?

In this case study, we decided to use a television news program as a case study. Specifically,2021counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)10month1from the day of2021counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)12month31of the day3months,NHKBroadcasting's "News Watch9The survey covered the "Mere Old Man. After viewing all broadcasts during the period, we extracted those that reported on conflict, friction, or confrontation and could be considered conflict reporting. The results showed that the reports that could be considered conflict coverage were18The total number of cases is approximately60Minutes of news coverage were scrutinized.18The three conflicts reported included reports of coups in Myanmar and Sudan and their counter-movements, terrorism in Afghanistan, and armed clashes in Yemen. Those that did not involve direct armed conflict but were still in the friction and confrontation phase included reports on the escalating tensions between Russia and Ukraine, North Korea's missile development and launches, and China's advances into areas claimed as Taiwanese and Japanese territory.

The method of analysis was to use a point system to rate each news item based on whether it shows a bias toward war journalism or peace journalism. The criteria for assigning points are as followsprevious work(in Japanese history)note 1(in Japanese).8Two features (*2(see Table 1).

The following are examples of conflict reports analyzed in this report: reports of Russian developments in Ukraine, reports of North Korean missiles, reports of conflict in Sudan, and reports of armed conflict in Yemen.4We will look at the two in turn.

Case 1: Russian Developments on Ukraine

1Secondly,2021counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)12month24The day's broadcast, about Russia's troop buildup near the border with Ukraine, was aired on10The report will cover the minutes of the report. In recent years, Ukraine has been the setting for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATOIn light of the intensifying power bloc struggle between Russia and the United States, the current developments in Russia and the West are attracting a great deal of attention.

Let me summarize the flow of this news report. First, it is mentioned that Russia is massing its troops near the border with Ukraine. Then, it is mentioned that since the collapse of the Soviet Union, the countries of Eastern Europe have been trying to establish a relationship with Russia.NATOThe historical background of how the event has been a place where the intentions of the powers have clashed is introduced. From there, the report proceeds in the form of an interview with a Russian international political scientist, mainly about Russia's security strategy. The report concludes by discussing the impact of Russian developments on Japan and its future prospects.

Russian Soldiers Sent to Crimean Peninsula, broadcast December 24, 2021.

Let me list some of the war-journalistic characteristics that were evident in this report. First, the footage used creates a sense of urgency, as if Russia were on the verge of war. In the first half of the video, although no actual military conflict occurred, "footage of a training exercise released by the Russian Defense Ministry" shows tanks firing artillery shells as they drive by,2008Footage of Russia's invasion of Georgia in 1949 is shown. The latter part of the film also uses scenes of artillery fire of unknown origin, referring to Russia's previous interventions in Georgia and Ukraine. These scenes can also be seen as a staging device to give the impression that Russia is a country that might use force and to add a sense of urgency to the content of the report.

Furthermore, the media's attitude can be seen not only in the video, but also in the narration and the words and actions of the newscasters. First, the narration describes Russia's moves against Ukraine as "tusked," as if Russia is about to harm Ukraine at any moment. Furthermore, in a scene in which the anchor interviews a Russian scholar, he asks questions such as "Is your country going to invade Ukraine?" and "Why did the Russian and Chinese navies join together to threaten Japan?" and we can see how the coverage fixes Russia as "evil.

In addition, it can be seen as encircling Russia in Eastern Europe.NATO troopsand the United States in Ukraine to date.words and deedsThe report is hardly reported on and its aims are not questioned. The coverage makes it appear that Russia is irreversibly heading toward war, with no mention of the possibility of a peaceful solution. Nevertheless, since the collapse of the Soviet UnionNATOSome points were given to peace journalism in that it explained to a certain extent the history leading up to the current developments, including the relationship with the

Case 2: North Korean Missiles

Next, we will address media reports on North Korean missiles. This issue concerns the development and launch of North Korean missiles.6The number of cases (*4Total of10minutes of news coverage were included in the analysis. The United Nations.prohibitionDespite these efforts, North Korea has repeatedly developed and tested ballistic missiles and nuclear weapons, and has been subject to severesanctionshave been imposed. And in this analysis6The reports in this case are mainly a series of reports in conjunction with new events and information, such as North Korea's ongoing development and improvement of its missile capabilities, the actual launch of the missile and the characteristics of the missile, and the reaction of the United States and South Korea to that launch.

North Korean Missile Launch Broadcast October 20, 2021

The first tendency generally common to those reports is that they thoroughly give the impression of North Korea as a threatening nuclear power. By interviewing experts to corroborate that the performance of North Korea's missiles is improving, by repeatedly showing scenes of missile launches, and by reporting them as "breaking news," it is thought that the aim is to make viewers aware of North Korea as a danger close at hand. Among them,2021counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)10month21In the broadcast on April 2, Kim Jong-un strode in front of a missile with government officials in tow and watched a military parade from a high place, simultaneously showing the extent of his power within North Korea and attributing the nuclear and missile problems to Kim alone.impressionThe "M" is considered to be attached to the "M". In addition, the10Of the minute or so of coverage,4Images and photographs of missiles are used in over a minute portion of the report. As in the case of Russia, the majority of the coverage is dominated by elements related to military force, and it is clear that the coverage fixes North Korea, and Kim Jong-un, as the "bad guys" who bring fear to the country. There is almost no coverage of solutions or diplomatic elements to the problem, and the content is solely about the sense of urgency. Some of the reports mentioned the UN Security Council's action and the fact that the U.S., South Korea, and Japan are cooperating to consider a new response, but the trend was strongly characterized by war journalism.

Case 3: Conflict in Sudan

3As a second case,2021counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)10month25the day26Total broadcasted on each of the two days2The report will feature a news report about the conflict in Sudan, which is about a minute long. In Sudan,2019The autocratic, long-ruling government collapsed in 1949, and the transition to civilian rule wasThey've been moving forward.However, the However.2021counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)10A coup d'état by the military in June resulted in the detention of the then prime minister.11Once the prime minister was reinstated in June, there were signs of democratization. Nevertheless, the people, mainly pro-democracy forces, called for demonstrations to demand a definite democratization.2022Clashes between pro-democracy forces and the military have continued into 2006. The two news reports analyzed in this report show the military issuing a statement declaring a state of emergency in response to the demonstrations and video footage of the demonstrations, while reporting on the number of casualties and the movements of the pro-democracy forces.

Statement by the Sudanese Military, broadcast October 26, 2021.

these2The news report seemed to be a clear report of the situation on the ground, with footage of the demonstrations taking up a large portion of the news time. The images of smoke and flames as people and the military clashed showed the chaos. Several parties were shown as sources of information, including statements by pro-democracy forces and local medical associations. However, each1In the two minutes or so of coverage, there was very little background on the coup, the demonstrations, and the moves toward peace. The coverage will leave viewers with an impression of the clashes, but it will be difficult to fully consider or promote understanding of Sudan's current problems, their causes, and possible solutions.

Case 4: Armed conflict in Yemen

The last one to be taken up,2021counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)10month20The day's broadcast,1about a minute.Conflict in YemenIt is a news report. In Yemen, "Arab Spring (revolutionary wave in the Arab world, 2010-2011)The "war" was followed by internal strife within the regime, and then an armed conflict complicated by the various interests of neighboring countries and forces.2014It has been going on since 2006.2021By the end of the year, the dead will be370,0007one thousand peopleThe dispute is estimated to be up to "World's Worst Humanitarian CrisisThe "I" is described as "a very good thing".

Armed Clashes in Yemen, broadcast October 20, 2021.

In the report, the conflict is described as a "forgotten civil war" and the need for countries to focus their attention and support. Previous Japanese media coverage of the conflictinformation volumeFrom the standpoint of the "war," it can be said that the situation has been "forgotten" by the Japanese press. However, calling this conflict, in which several other national militaries are involved, a "civil war" is itself considered to be an obstacle to understanding the situation. From this point of view, it can be said that the information available through this report has led to misunderstandings about the conflict in Yemen. The background of the conflict and the movement toward peace are also not mentioned at all. With such extremely short coverage, it would be difficult for viewers to understand the armed conflict in the same way as the Sudan coverage mentioned above.

Toward better conflict reporting? 

So far, we have examined Japanese media coverage of conflict from the perspective of war journalism, which emphasizes the violent and confrontational aspects of conflict, and peace journalism, which also focuses on the root causes of conflict and moves toward peace. However, there are also critical views of peace journalism.how to look at something (e.g. noh, train schedule)There is a The criticism is that in focusing so much on peace, the media has lost its objectivity as a form of reporting. In other words, journalism is supposed to observe events and report them as they are, but when it tries to promote peace, it becomes a party to the events. In this way, peace journalism has become an advocate of peace rather than journalism.

However, as we have discussed, there are also major problems with traditional war journalism. Therefore, as a new way of reporting conflicts, conflict-sensitive journalism (conflict sensitive journalism. conflict-sensitive reporting, below,CSJTheadvocacyThe first time I saw a new company, I was surprised at how much I had to pay.CSJThis means that reporters do not simply report the facts of the events related to the conflict, but rather actively gather more perspectives and voices based on their own understanding of the causes of the conflict. In this way, they try to capture and convey as comprehensive a picture as possible, from the causes of the conflict to the movement toward peace. This is an aspect of peace journalism that has many similarities, but it is not a definitivedifferenceHa,CSJThe goal, then, is not to promote or contribute to peace, nor to report as such. A more accurate and comprehensive view is likely to result in resolution and recurrence, but it is not the only goal.

Reporters at a peace talks meeting in Yemen (Photo: UN Geneva / Flickr[.CC BY-NC-ND 2.0])

So far, we have seen that traditional conflict reporting, war journalism, by concentrating on one aspect of the conflict, hinders understanding of the conflict and, as a result, makes it difficult to see the possibility of a peaceful resolution. This tendency, which was also observed in this analysis, may be applicable to conflict reporting in Japan in general. On the other hand, there is peace journalism that focuses on the causes of conflict and peace, and that attempts to contribute to people's understanding of the conflict by reporting it objectively and in a more comprehensive manner.CSJWe have introduced a new movement called What is the purpose of conflict reporting? Each media outlet and journalist will be asked to reconfirm the significance of communicating about conflicts and reporting on conflicts.

note (supplementary information) symbol1　2019A study of how Malaysian newspapers report on the South China Sea issue in 2006. In this literature, Johan Galtung characterizes war journalism and peace journalism based on his assertions8Two items are shown.

note (supplementary information) symbol2　8Two characteristics: war journalism and peace journalism, as advocated by Johan Galtung, characterized by pairing8The two items are.

Elite-oriented or people-oriented: whether only government military personnel are featured as sources of information and parties, or whether the general public is featured.

Difference-oriented or agreement-oriented: Do you focus only on points of contention, differences in position, friction, etc.? Or do you focus on events on which the parties may agree?

Here and now, cause and effect: Are you reporting only what happened, or are you reporting the background and long-term consequences of the event?

Partner Evil, Shared Responsibility: Whether or not the report assumes that the other country is "evil".

Bipartite or multiple structures: Are the conflicting structures reported in a simplified manner as if they were merely bilateral, or are they reported in consideration of the existence of numerous different actors?

One-sided or neutral: Is the news report bias or favoring one side of the actor or the other?

Win-win, win-lose, or win-win: Is the consequence left solely to the win-lose of one of the actors, or does it refer to a different solution?

Subjective or objective language: Is the "bad" actor represented in negative or hyperbolic terms, or in objective terms?

note (supplementary information) symbol3　When both characteristics were found in the same item, the breakdown of reporting time for each characteristic, etc., was tabulated and one point was assigned accordingly. Thus, a small number of items occurred.

note (supplementary information) symbol4　Each,2021Year.10month1Day,10month6Day,10month12Day,10month19Day,10month20Day,12month2A news report aired on the day of the event.

Writer: Yosuke Asada

Graphic: Yosuke Asada

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