In the Russian-Ukrainian conflict, Ukraine demanded that the United States provide cluster bombs, and the United States...studyThe things that we are doing,2022counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)12This was revealed in May. However, regarding this consideration, much less Ukraine's use of cluster bombs in this conflict, a major Japanese3The newspapers, Asahi, Yomiuri, and Mainichi, did not mention it at all. On the other hand, in the same conflict, Russia has been carrying out a cluster bombing campaign against Ukraine.useWhen the first two newspapers reported on the issue, all three carried multiple editions of the report with strong criticism.

 Despite being the same, the two cases show a difference in treatmentcluster bombWhat are these weapons? What exactly are these weapons? And how has the Japanese press viewed this weapon? Does the reporting attitude change depending on the country where the weapon is used or was used, as in the case of Russia and Ukraine? We conducted an analysis of the Asahi Shimbun, Mainichi Shimbun, and Yomiuri Shimbun.

Unexploded ordnance lying on the ground, Iraq (Photo:Cluster Munition Coalition / Flickr [CC BY 2.0])

About Cluster Bombs

cluster bombis a weapon that contains a number of child bombs within a single parent bomb. When launched, it releases these in the air, inflicting a widespread and indiscriminate attack. The second2It was first used in World War II and has been used by more than 20 countries since then. The United States is Cambodia,Laosand large amounts in Vietnam, Afghanistan, Iraq, and other countries. Also,2006In the year,Israelwas used in large quantities in Lebanon.

 At first glance, it may not appear to be very different in nature from conventional bombs, but in fact, there are international treaties that prohibit the production, possession, and use of these bombs. What is the background to this? What is the background to thisweaponsMany of the child bombs released from the "IEDs" are unexploded and, like landmines, continue to be at risk of exploding even after the conflict ends. In other words, they cause damage to military personnel and civilians alike, and in both wartime and peacetime. Even after the conflict ends, unexploded ordnance continues to cause damage in the affected areas, such as the deaths of children who mistake them for toys and pick them up, or the delay in postwar reconstruction by preventing residents from freely using their fields and land.1960Since the mid-1980s.2021Until the end of the yearstatisticsAccording to the "Mere Old Man," the number of deaths from unexploded cluster munitions is about four times higher than the number of deaths directly caused by them (note 1(See Section 2.1.2.).

These characteristics led to an international movement to ban the production, possession, and use of cluster bombs. First,2006counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)11In May, the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) to regulate cluster bombs was discussed, but no agreement was reached due to opposition from the U.S., Russia, and other countries that possess such weapons. In response,1999Antipersonnel mines, banned by treaty in 1949 (*2(a).emulationIn the form of Norway and other volunteer countries, as well asNGOled the process of creating a new treaty,2008The Convention on Cluster Munitions was adopted in 2006,2010It entered into force in 2006. This treaty is commonly known as the Oslo Convention.2022August, 20061day (of the month)point in timeIn,110The number of member countries is about 1,000,13The countries have signed on to the agreement.2010Since the publication of this treaty in 2006,2023As of 2006, any new or suspected use of cluster bombs by member states,confirmationThe Convention has not been ratified. In addition, the treaty has had some successes, including the effect of discouraging non-signatory countries from using it and creating an international climate that regulates investment in and financing of cluster bomb-related companies. However,2022counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)8As of June, several holding countries, including the U.S., Russia, China, India, and others, stillnon-memberand their use or potential use by these countries remains problematic.

A 12-year-old boy who lost his leg, Lebanon (Photo:luster Munition Coalition / Flickr [CC BY 2.0])

Use after the entry into force of the ban treaty

2010Since the Convention on Cluster Munitions entered into force in August 2006, there has been no confirmed use of cluster bombs by member countries, but nonmember countries such as Thailand, Libya, Syria, Sudan, South Sudan, Ukraine, Saudi Arabia, Almeria, Azerbaijan, and Russia have used cluster bombs (see*3). Let us look at each of these countries' use of cluster bombs in turn.

 2011counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)2In May, Thailand and Cambodiainternational border disputeThe United States has claimed that it used cluster bombs against Cambodia in thereportThe company has been

 2011Year,2014Year,2019Year,LibyaCluster bombs were used in the2011In 2006, Muammar al-Gaddafi's government forces used cluster bombs against opposition forces.useIt is now clear that the company has done so. after the fall of the Gaddafi regime.2014counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)12After May, at least in Japan.2In one location, a cluster bomb wasuseThe employer has not been determined, although evidence has been found to indicate that it was done. Furthermore,2019In 2006, the anti-transitional government, the "Libyan National ArmyDepends on the unit to which he belongs,severalwere used or could have been used.

 In Syria,2011Continuing from 1949 to the presentdisputeIn the United States, cluster bombs have been used by Syrian government forces or Russian forces supporting them since mid-2012.useand again in 2022.usehave been confirmed. In addition,2014In the latter part of the year, they occupied parts of Syria.IS(Islamic State), cluster bombs.useWe know that they did.

 2012and2015Sudanese government forces used cluster bombs in their fight against rebels.Government of Sudanhas also participated in the negotiation process and adoption of the Convention on Cluster Munitions, and has stated its willingness to sign the treaty in the past, but has yet to (2023counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)1(as of March) has not yet joined.

 2014In 1949, during the conflictSouth SudanIn theuseThe user has not been identified. The employer was not identified.

 2014from (e.g. time, place, numerical quantity)2015In the conflict in 2006, both Ukrainian government forces and Russian-backed Ukrainian rebel forces used cluster bombs in eastern Ukraine.useThe first time, the company was in a position to do so.

 Yemen Conflict (1992-1998)In,2015Since the year2017Over the course of the year, Saudi coalition forces carried out airstrikes against Houthi forces in Yemen.useIt is clear that the company has done so.

 2020Tour of the Nagorno-Karabakh region in 2006disputeSo, Almeria and Azerbaijan.useThe first time, the company was in a position to do so.

 2022counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)2Since the outbreak of the Russian-Ukrainian conflict in May,RussiaandUkraineBoth of the cluster bombs are used by the

The tenth meeting of the Convention on Cluster Munitions (Photo:Cluster Munition Coalition / Flickr [CC BY 2.0])

Cluster bombs still possessed and manufactured

As we have mentioned, the use of cluster bombs has been called into question because of their indiscriminate nature and long-term damage, and there is a treaty banning the use of cluster bombs, but many countries that have not signed the ban treaty are stillpossessionand some of the parties have not completed abrogation.

What about Japan? We have been in possession of cluster bombs.Japanhas been involved in the Convention on Cluster Munitions since its creation,2008counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)12Signed in May,2009counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)7It was ratified in June. 2015counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)2By March, the SDF will dispose of the cluster bombs it hadcompletionJapan, however, allows the U.S. military in Japan to bring in and use these weapons. Japan, however, allows the introduction and use of such weapons by U.S. forces in Japan. Responding to the U.S.' opposition to the restrictions of the ban treaty, Japan negotiated in the treaty-making process to make the article unaffected by the activities of U.S. forces in Japan, and when that failed, unilaterally declared its own interpretation of the article at the conference. This, they said, allowed the U.S. forces in Japan to continue to bring and use cluster bombs in Japan. This was confirmed by the whistleblower website, "WikiLeaksThe story was brought to light by a U.S. diplomatic cable released by the

 Behind the possession is the manufacture Among the non-signatories to the ban treatyseveralof countries are still producing or have the potential to produce cluster bombs. Their production is being carried out by numerous companies and supported by the financing of many financial institutions.a past (i.e. a personal history)include Japanese financial institutions Dai-ichi Life Insurance, MitsubishiUFJFinancial Group, Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Group, and ORIX.4The company was also involved in investments and loans to manufacturing companies. In addition,2017In 2006, the Pension Fund Management Agency (PFM), the organization that manages Japan's public pension system, was established.(GPIF)was also found to own shares in a cluster bomb manufacturing company. This corporation is expected to be completed in 20213monthpoint in timeBut we know that they own shares in manufacturing and past manufacturing companies.

Israeli-made cluster bombs (Photo:aick / Wikimedia [CC BY-SA 3.0])

Cluster Bombs and the Press in Japan

Thus, what do the Japanese press report about Japan's signing of the Convention on Cluster Munitions while at the same time preserving cluster bombs for U.S. forces in Japan, and the involvement of Japanese financial institutions in the manufacture of these weapons through past and present investments and loans? Regarding the Asahi, Mainichi, and Yomiuri newspapers, the Convention on Cluster Munitions has entered into force.2010counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)8We looked up articles mentioning cluster bombs after May 1 (*4(See Section 2.1.2.).

In the Yomiuri Shimbun, there was a reporting attitude that seemed to exclude facts that would work against its own country. The WikiLeaks revelations, referring to the exchange between the U.S. and Japan, were1The article (*5) focuses on WikiLeaks itself as a problem and criticizes it as "threatening diplomacy," and hardly mentions the series of events related to cluster bombs, which can be considered inconvenient for Japan. In contrast, the article reporting that the U.S. secretly lobbied Afghanistan to allow the use of cluster bombs (*6) does not criticize WikiLeaks at all, but treats it as a legitimate source of information. Despite being the same source of information, the reporting attitude of the article seemed to point out the danger of the source itself as soon as it was exposed to the detriment of one's own country. Furthermore, no article directly reported on Japanese financial institutions' investment in and financing of cluster bomb manufacturing companies, and one article (7)In the "Mitsubishi UFJ Bank will finalize by the end of May a lending policy that emphasizes public interest, such as encouraging loans for ultra-efficient coal-fired power projects and banning loans to companies that manufacture cluster bombs. The bank deftly avoided mentioning the fact that problematic investments and loans were being made, saying such things as, "We are going to put together a policy by the end of May that emphasizes the public interest.

In contrast, the Asahi Shimbun and the Mainichi Shimbun were relatively more realistic in their reporting. The Asahi Shimbun and the Mainichi Shimbun had two articles that referred to the series of events surrounding the preservation of cluster bombs by the U.S. military in Japan, which were exposed by WikiLeaks, while the Asahi Shimbun and the Mainichi Shimbun had only two articles.1Article available (*8) However, none of the articles mentioned anything that defended their own country. In addition, the Asahi Shimbun newspaper mentioned investment and loans in the following articles.6Article, in the Mainichi Newspaper4There were articles, and they were reported with due attention. Especially in the Asahi Shimbun,6Each of the articles included critical language such as "inhumane cluster bombs" and "cluster bombs that disperse small bombs over a wide area," and criticized the fact that the number of companies making loans to cluster bomb manufacturers was four, the largest number of companies among the signatories to the Convention, and lamented the loans made to cluster bomb manufacturers by Japanese financial institutions (see below). There were also letters from readers lamenting the loans made by Japanese financial institutions to cluster bomb manufacturing companies (note 9 (supplementary information)(See Section 2.1.2.).

Exploding unexploded ordnance, Laos (Photo:Cluster Munition Coalition / Flickr [CC BY 2.0])

Biased reporting depending on the country of use: Asahi Shimbun and Yomiuri Shimbun

Next, let's look at how the use of cluster bombs is reported by three major Japanese newspapers. Asahi Shimbun, Mainichi Shimbun, and Yomiuri Shimbun, for which the Convention on Cluster Munitions has come into effect.2010counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)8We examined articles written about the use or possible use of cluster bombs after May 1 (see(*10)The article in question was published by the Asahi Shimbun. The relevant article was published by the Asahi Shimbun.15article, the Mainichi Newspapers.32article, the Yomiuri Shimbun.13The articles were. The context in which these articles (*)11) to determine the level of criticism, in order to know how much criticism is included in the description (12 )and surveyed on the basis of this information.

Of the three companies, the Asahi Shimbun and the Yomiuri Shimbun showed a particularly pronounced bias in their reporting. These two companies overwhelmingly reported on Russia's use against Ukraine in the Russian-Ukrainian conflict (Asahi Shimbun:15In Article.6Article, Yomiuri Shimbun:13In Article.8(Article). In addition, the Asahi Shimbun has not published all of its articles ((*12)The Yomiuri Shimbun, in its article "The ROK," was highly critical of the "inhumane weapons," "weapons that kill and maim indiscriminately and extensively," and "atrocities," among other words. The Yomiuri Shimbun, too, was highly critical of all articles (13)and included more than moderate criticism, such as "cluster bombs banned by international treaties." In contrast, neither of the two newspapers reported any use by Ukraine in the same conflict. Nor did Ukraine,2014The two companies also used cluster bombs in the eastern part of their own country in 2006, which also went completely unreported by the two companies. The use of cluster bombs by Russia is widely and critically mentioned, while the use by Ukraine is not even mentioned, despite the fact that they are the same type of cluster bombs.

Furthermore, only less than half of the articles reporting Syrian use were from Russia to Ukraine (Asahi Shimbun: 3 articles; Yomiuri Shimbun: 3 articles). The Syrian conflict is a conflict itself.scaleis large,2012From 1949 to the present, cluster bombs have been used for a long period of time. In contrast, the Russian-Ukrainian conflict, if judged solely on the basis of the number of deaths, has been less severe than the conflict in Syria.scaleis small, and Russia's use of cluster bombs against Ukraine was also small,2022counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)2This has been happening since June.

The Yemen conflict is also a conflict in itself.scaleis larger than the Russian-Ukrainian conflict, and cluster bombs are only apparent,2015Since the year2017They have been used for as long as two years. Nevertheless, the use of cluster bombs by Saudi coalition forces in Yemen went largely unreported (Asahi Shimbun: 1 article, Yomiuri Shimbun: 1 article).

Other uses in Thailand, Libya, Sudan, South Sudan, Almeria and Azerbaijan also went largely unreported (see*14(See Section 2.1.2.).

Ban cluster bombs!" Protest with a collection of shoes symbolizing injuries caused by unexploded ordnance (Photo: S Pakhrin / Flickr [CC BY 2.0])

News coverage biased by country of use：Mainichi Shimbun

The Mainichi Shimbun was somewhat more geographically balanced than the other two companies. The company's most frequent reference was to its use in Syria (32In Article.13(Article). This is more balanced in view of the scale of the Syrian conflict itself and the long-term nature of its use. In contrast to the other two newspapers, only three articles referred to use by Russia to Ukraine in the Russian-Ukrainian conflict. In addition, the paper did not mention Thailand's use of2Article, for use in Libya6Article,2014to use by Ukraine in 2006.3article, for use by Saudi coalition forces in Yemen.3It is mentioned in the article and provides some full coverage.

Yet, the Mainichi also,2022There was no mention of Ukraine's use against Russia in the Russian-Ukrainian conflict that began in 2006. Furthermore, when the articles did mention Russia's use against Ukraine, two of the three articles mentioned "humanitarian catastrophe" and "outrage" ((*15)I mentioned it with words that indicate strong criticism, such as "I'm not a good person,2014When Ukraine used it in the eastern part of its own country in 2006, there was little critical element, three articles to one, and weak criticism (16)It only showed that the

Finally.

As we have seen, Japanese media coverage of cluster bombs does not always reflect the actual situation in their own country or in the world. Why does this bias in reporting arise? While it is impossible to say for sure, given the differences in the circumstances of each conflict and the use of cluster bombs, the following patterns may be captured. While there are differences from newspaper to newspaper, as a whole, newspapers tend to report more and criticize more the use of cluster bombs by countries such as Russia and Syria, which are "seen as enemies" in Japan or the West and are considered "villains" in the good versus evil storyline. Conversely, when Saudi Arabia, which has close ties to the Japanese government, uses it in Yemen, or when Ukraine does, it receives little attention or criticism. Nor does it seem to merit attention when used by countries such as Sudan and Libya, in which the Japanese government can be said to have little strong interest.

However, if weapons such as cluster bombs are to be treated as "inhumane," they need to be treated as equally "inhumane" no matter who uses them. Such biased reporting fails to convey the reality of the world and may be perceived as indirectly favoring one side of the conflict over the other. Is this the way the Japanese press should be?

A U.S. soldier prepares cluster bombs for a fighter plane (Photo:U.S. Indo-Pacific Command / Flickr [CC BY-NC-ND 2.0])

note (supplementary information) symbol11960Since the mid-1980s.2021Data through the end of the year show that the global cluster bombing ofTotal casualties23,082of the people were directly killed or wounded by cluster munitions attacks.4,656people, and the number of casualties due to unexploded ordnance.18,426People.

note 2 (supplementary information)mine ban treaty(in Japanese history)Ottawa Treaty) with volunteer countries such as Canada.NGOwhich is a federation of "International Campaign to Ban LandminesIt was established at the initiative of the

 *3　The main focus was on those for which reliable evidence of use had been found.

 *4　The databases of three companies (Asahi Shimbun: Cross Search, Mainichi Shimbun: My Index, Yomiuri Shimbun: Yomidas Rekishikan) were used to search the morning and evening editions of the national and regional editions of Tokyo. The time period was2010counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)8From May 1,2022counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)12month31day. In each database, we searched for articles containing the keyword "cluster bomb," and all hit articles were included in the analysis. However, one article in the Yomiuri Shimbun, which could not be viewed due to copyright reasons, was excluded.

5 "WikiLeaks: Diplomacy Threatens U.S. Public Records Revealed, Current Status and Problems, Breaking the Assumption of Confidentiality" (Yomiuri Shimbun, June 23, 2011)

6 "WikiLeaks: U.S. 'Admit cluster bombs,' former administration pressured to admit" (Yomiuri Shimbun, December 6, 2010)

 *7　The Yomiuri Shimbun, "Major banks to tighten loans for coal-fired power plants, limit on CO2 emissions," (Yomiuri Shimbun, "The Yomiuri Shimbun,2018counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)5month12(Japanese)

 *8　
"U.S. Concerns Japan's Accession to Treaty: Cluster Bomb Ban 'Constrains U.S. Military,' Diplomatic Communique," Asahi Shimbun,2011counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)6month16(Japanese)
"Japanese Bureaucrats, Two Faces: Joining the Cluster Ban Treaty and Repeating Negative Remarks to the U.S.," Asahi Shimbun,2011counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)6month16(Japanese)
WikiLeaks: Japanese government discusses cluster 'preservation' of U.S. diplomatic cables" (Mainichi Shimbun,2011counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)6month16(Japanese)

 note 9 (supplementary information)　
"Japan Invests in Four Cluster-Bomb Manufacturing Companies, Most in Regulated Countries, NGO Says" (Asahi Shimbun,2017counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)5month24(Japanese)
(Voice) Stop financing bomb-making companies."(Asahi Shimbun,2017counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)6month5day (of the month))

*10　The databases of three companies (Asahi Shimbun: Cross Search, Mainichi Shimbun: My Index, Yomiuri Shimbun: Yomidas Rekishikan) were used to search the morning and evening editions of the national and regional editions of Tokyo. The time period was2010From August 1, 2006,2022counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)12month31day to the date of the survey. Of the articles found by searching for articles containing the keyword "cluster bomb" in the respective databases,2010Those that reported or mentioned the use or potential use of the product after August of 2006 were included in the analysis.

 note (supplementary information) symbol11　1Any reference to more than one context of use in a single article should be made in the context of each of the1articles and counting. For example, "Cluster bombs: 97% of damage: civilians; 417 people killed or injured last year; Syria and Yemen prominent, NGO report" (Mainichi Shimbun,2016counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)9month3(Sun.) on the use of the Syrian1article, and also on its use by Saudi forces in Yemen.1article, and also on its use in the conflict over the Nagorno-Karabakh region.1I counted it as also being an article.

 *12 　Based on the language contained in the articles, the articles were categorized as articles containing strong criticism, articles containing moderate criticism, and articles containing weak criticism.

 An "article containing strong criticism" shall include language that could be perceived as direct and wordy criticism. For example, "amounting to outrage, extremely dangerous or deadly, brutal or atrocious, inhumane, indiscriminate attack or war crime.

 An "article containing moderate criticism" is one that mentions that someone (government officials, human rights organizations, the international community, etc.) has expressed condemnation or concern, or one that "also causes death or injury to civilians or harm to civilians.  It shall include words such as "prohibited, widely prohibited, internationally prohibited, prohibited by international treaty, causing widespread harm.

 An "article containing weak criticism" shall include words that could be perceived as indirectly critical. For example, "suspected of being ~, used again and again, pretending to be, damage, victim, victimizer," etc. In addition, an article that appeals to readers' sympathies by describing the damage and the victim's circumstances shall also be considered "an article containing weak criticism.

*13　
(Editorial) Russian Aggression: Immediate Stop to Humanitarian Crimes."2022counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)3month16(Japanese)
(Invasion of Ukraine) Lives Lost, Cities Disappear in Intensifying East, Fears of Prolongation."2022April, 200624(Japanese)
'Cluster bomb, or so the mayor of Slavyansk posted.'2022counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)7month3(Japanese)
"Cluster Munitions Used by Russian Military in Southern Ukraine."2022counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)7month30(Japanese)
"U.N. 'Russia Found to Have Committed War Crimes,' Torture and Sexual Assault of 4-Year-Old."2022counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)9month24(Japanese)
"Shadows in the woods, crosses with only numbers, Ijum cemetery survey, 'heartbreak,' Ukraine" (2022counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)9month25(Japanese)

 *14　
Regarding the use of ties, Asahi Shimbun: 1 article, Yomiuri Shimbun: 0 article
Regarding the use of Libya, Asahi Shimbun: 2 articles, Yomiuri Shimbun: 1 article
For use in Sudan, Asahi Shimbun: 0 article, Yomiuri Shimbun: 0 article
For use in South Sudan, Asahi Shimbun: 0 article, Yomiuri Shimbun: 0 article
For use in Almeria and Azerbaijan, Asahi Shimbun: 2 articles, Yomiuri Shimbun: 0 articles

 *15
Ukraine invasion: Ukraine invasion: "Ukrainians in Japan appeal for 'peace seekers, acceptance'" (Ukrainians in Japan, et al.2022counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)3month4(Japanese)
This Week on the Bookshelf: "To You Who Don't Know the Iraq War" = The Network for the Verification of the Iraq War, ed.2022counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)4month9(Japanese)

 *16　By describing the damage and the circumstances of the victims, the book was intended to appeal to the sympathies of readers.
Ukraine: Residents of the East (Stop #2) Civil Impoverishment, Rationing for Life.2015counter for years (following a number in the hito-futa-mi counting system)3month16day (of the month)

Writer: Yuka Funai

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